UPSC Sociology Mains Syllabus
Paper 1 – Fundamentals of Sociology – Chapter 5 – Stratification and Mobility
(a) Concepts – equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty and deprivation.
(b) Theories of social stratification – Structural functionalist theory, Marxist theory, Weberian theory.
(c) Dimensions – Social stratification of class, status groups, gender, ethnicity and race.
(d) Social mobility – open and closed systems, types of mobility, sources and causes of mobility.
THE CONCEPT
The opportunities and services that are inaccessible are things like infrastructure – even basic things like electricity and running water – and services like public education, healthcare or the social welfare system. These communities are often referred to as ‘marginalized’, and ‘social marginalization’ is another term used to describe social exclusion.
ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT
Social exclusion is a relatively new concept, which emerged as a new paradigm in the 1990s in poverty studies in Europe. It is a French invention pertaining to “Les exclus”, which refers to those who fell through the social safety net in the 1970s. For example, the disabled, single parents and the unemployed on benefits. The concept can also be traced back to French sociologist, Emilé Durkheim(1964), who understood social exclusion in relation to―as well as in opposition to―the question of solidarity and social cohesion in society.
POVERTY AND EXCLUSION
It is often the case that people who are socially excluded also live in poverty. If you can’t afford basic things like food, clothing or a place to live, or be able to move about on public transport when you need to or access healthcare when you’re ill or injured, then you’re probably excluded from taking part in many things in society. And it’s true that ethnic minorities are, on average, in a worse economic situation than the majority. Poverty concerns limited financial and material resources, and the deprivation that ensues thereof, whilst social exclusion also covers other types of social problems that obstruct or hinder an individual or group from participating in one or more core areas of society.
FORMS OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION
Political exclusion can include the denial of citizenship rights such as political participation and the right to organise, and also of personal security, the rule of law, freedom of expression and equality of opportunity. Economic exclusion includes lack of access to labour markets, credit and other forms of ‘capital assets’.Social exclusion may take the form of discrimination along a number of dimensions including gender, ethnicity and age, which reduce the opportunity for such groups to gain access to social services and limits their participation in the labour market. Cultural exclusion refers to the extent to which diverse values, norms and ways of living are accepted and respected.
SOCIAL INCLUSION
Social inclusion is a process which ensures that those at risk of poverty and social exclusion gain the opportunities and resources necessary to participate fully in economic, social, political and cultural life and to enjoy a standard of living that is considered normal in the society in which they live. It ensures that they have greater participation in decision making which affects their lives and access to their fundamental rights.
SOCIAL EXCLUSION AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Social exclusion increases exposure and vulnerability to natural hazards and disasters in several ways. Certain groups, such as indigenous peoples, are more likely to live in rural areas and to be reliant on natural assets, such as forests, bodies of water, or fish or livestock, to sustain their livelihoods and meet their basic needs; all such assets are heavily affected by climate and weather events. At the same time, excluded groups often lack the means to access insurance, credit and other productive resources that could help them to buffer against (as well as recover from) shocks and invest in adaptation Insecurity and destruction following disasters affect livelihoods and prevent children from attending school, thereby reducing productivity and income and creating irreparable learning gaps among young people.
CONCLUSION
Overall, social exclusion describes a state in which individuals are unable to participate fully in economic, social, political and cultural life, as well as the process leading to and sustaining such a state.
Participation may be hindered when people lack access to material resources, including income, employment, land and housing, or to such services as education and health care — essential foundations of well-being that are captured in Agenda 2030.
